建筑学毕业设计的外文文献及译文.docx

建筑学毕业设计的外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：Advanced Encryption Standard文献、资料发表（出版）日期:2004.10.25系 （部）：建筑工程系生：陆总LYY外文文献：Modern ArchitectureModern architecture, not to be confused with Contemporary architecture1, is a term given toa number of building styles with similar characteristics, primarily the simplification of form andthe elimination of ornament. While the style was conceived early in the 20th century and heavilypromoted by a few architects, architectural educators and exhibits, very few Modern buildingswere built in the first half of the century. For three decades after the Second World War, however,it became the dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate building.1. OriginsSome historians see the evolution of Modern architecture as a social matter, closely tied tothe project of Modernity and hence to the Enlightenment, a result of social and politicalrevolutions.Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineeringdevelopments, and it is true that the availability of new building materials such as iron, steel,concrete and glass drove the invention of new building techniques as part of the IndustrialRevolution. In 1796, Shrewsbury mill owner Charles Bage first used his "fireproof design, whichrelied on cast iron and brick with flag stone floors. Such construction greatly strengthened thestructure of mills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poorknowledge of iron's properties as a construction material, a number of early mills collapsed. Itwas not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading towidespread use of iron construction, this kind of austere industrial architecture utterlytransformed the landscape of northern Britain, leading to the description, Dark satanic mills ofplaces like Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at theGreat Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and glass construction; possibly the bestexample is the development of the tall steel skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by William LeBaron Jenney and Louis Sullivan Early structures to employ concrete as the chief means ofarchitectural expression (rather than for purely utilitarian structure) include Frank Lloyd Wright,sUnity Temple, built in 1906 near Chicago, and Rudolf Steiner,s Second Goetheanum, built from1926 near Basel, Switzerland.Other historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism andthe lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian Era and Edwardian Art Nouveau.Whatever the cause, around 1900 a number of architects around the world began developingnew architectural solutions to integrate traditional precedents (Gothic, for instance) with newtechnological possibilities- The work of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago,Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles RennieMackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old andnew.2. Modernism as Dominant StyleBy the 1920s the most important figures in Modern architecture had established theirreputations. The big three are commonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France, and Ludwig Miesvan der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany. Mies van der Rohe and Gropius were bothdirectors of the Bauhaus, one of a number of European schools and associations concerned withreconciling craft tradition and industrial technology.Frank Lloyd Wrightrs career parallels and influences the work of the European modernists,particularly via the Wasmuth Portfolio, but he refused to be categorized with them. Wright was amajor influence on both Gropius and van der Rohe, however, as well as on the whole of organicarchitecture.In 1932 came the important MOMA exhibition, the International Exhibition of ModemArchitecture, curated by Philip Johnson. Johnson and collaborator Henry-Russell Hitchcock drewtogether many distinct threads and trends, identified them as stylistically similar and having acommon purpose, and consolidated them into the International Style.This was an important turning point. With World War II the important figures of the Bauhausfled to the United States, to Chicago, to the Harvard Graduate School of Design, and to BlackMountain College. While Modern architectural design never became a dominant style insingle-dwelling residential buildings, in institutional and commercial architecture Modernismbecame the pre-eminent, and in the schools (for leaders of the profession) the only acceptable,design solution from about 1932 to about 1984.Architects who worked in the international style wanted to break with architectural traditionand design simple, unornamented buildings. The most commonly used materials are glass for thefacade, steel for exterior support, and concrete for the floors and interio